A single parent usually refers to a parent who has most of the day to day responsibilities in the raising of the child or children, which would categorize them as the dominant caregiver. The dominant caregiver is the parent in which the children have residency with majority of the time;[1] if the parents are separated or divorced children live with their custodial parent and have visitation with their noncustodial parent.[2] In western society in general, following separation, a child will end up with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and a secondary caregiver, usually the father.[3]
There are many facts involving single parenting in the social spectrum of the world today. Single parenting has become an accepted norm in the United States and is an accepted trend found in multiple countries outside of the United States. Single parenting is often a result of divorce in which children exist in a relationship. Custody battles, awarded by the court or rationalized in other terms, determine who the child will spend majority of their time with, this effects children in many ways and there are many suggestions to counsel them. A mother is typically the primary caregiver in a single parent family structure as a result of divorce, unplanned pregnancy, or other factors like death of a partner. Fathers are less commonly seen as primary caregiver but they are growing in recent years. Single parent adoption is an option for adults who want children but are not currently in a relationship or seeking a partner.
The demographics of single parenting show a general increase worldwide in children living in single parent homes. Statistics from the United States, North Korea, and the United Kingdom all fall in line with this trend. Multiple debates concerning single parenthood have come about over time. Debates concerning not only the single parents themselves, but also the children involved, support for the families in single parent households, and more have risen to the surface. Divorce is one of the main events that leads to single parenting. Divorce can have many different effects on the children involved, and there are many ways to deal with it to try to make everything go smoothly. Media are a very important resource for people all over the world. Men and women of all ages are portrayed in the media, mostly on television or in movies, as great parents, showing that this can situation can result in a successful family environment.
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Since the 1960s, there has been a marked increase in the number of children living with a single parent. The 1960 United States Census reported that 9% of children were dependent on a single parent, a number that has increased to 28% by the 2000 US Census. The spike was caused by an increase in unmarried pregnancies, which 36% of all births by unmarried women, and to the increasing prevalence of divorces among couples. In 2000, 11% of children were living with parents who had never been married, 15.6% of children lived with a divorced parent, and 1.2% lived with a parent who was widowed.[4][5] The results of the 2010 United States Census showed that 27% of children live with one parent, consistent with the emerging trend noted in 2000.[6]
About 16% of children wordlwide live in a single-parent household. [7] In 2006, 12.9 million families in the US were headed by a single parent, 80% of which were headed by a female.[8][9] In 2003, 14% of all Australian households were single-parent families. Since 2001, 31% of babies born in Australia have been born to unmarried mothers.[10] In the United Kingdom, about 1 out of 4 families with dependent children are single-parent families, 8 to 11 percent of which have a male single-parent.[3][11][12] - General Household Survey; see table 3.6. UK poverty figures show that 52% of single parent families are below the Government-defined poverty line (after housing costs).[13]
Countries located in Asia and the Middle East are the least likely to have children raised in single parent households. On the other hand, the 3 areas of the world that are most likely to have non-marital childbearing are Latin America, South Africa, and Sweden. Along with this, the areas where there are an extremely high number of children living in single parent homes include Africa, Europe, Latin America, North America, and Oceania. It has also been shown that children living in areas of South Africa are the very most likely to live with a single parent.[14]
There is some debate among experts as to what the important component of the family structure is, centering around whether or not a complete family or the love and affection of the childrens' parents is more important. There are even some that argue that a single parent family isn't even really a family.[15] With respect to this, recent public policy debates have centered around whether or not government should give aid to single parent households, which some believe will reduce poverty and improve their situation, or instead focus on wider issues like protecting employment.[16] Another issue is juvenile delinquency, specifically whether or not it is more prevalent in single parent households; if children don't live with the parent that is the same sex as them, they may not have anyone to model appropriate behavior.[15] In addition, there is a debate on the behavioral effects of children with incarcerated parents, and how losing one or both parents to incarceration effects their academic performance and social well-being with others.[17]
A variety of viewpoints exist, and the debate is complicated by different interpretations of available research. The Institute for the Study of Civil Society reports that children of single parents, after controlling for other variables like family income, are more likely to have problems. It is encouraged that each parent respect the other, at least in the child's presence, and provide child support for the primary caregiver, when parents are not married or separated.[18] [19] The civil behavior among separated parents has a direct effect on how child copes with their situation; this is especially seen in younger children who do not yet understand their familial separation, requiring both parents to establish a limited friendship to support the upbringing of their child.[19]
Collectively, 83.1% of single parents are mothers compared to 16.9% of those who are fathers. Among this percentage of single mothers, there are multiple factors that contribute to single motherhood: 45% of single mothers are currently divorced or separated, 1.7% are widowed, 34% of single mothers are not married--which may have resulted from accidental pregnancy--or never have been married.[20][21] There are also a few options for women who want to mother on their own by choice, through adoption, artificial insemination, or in vitro fertilization.[22]
The prevalence of single mothers as primary caregiver is a part of traditional parenting trends between mothers and fathers. In her work Marriages & Families Nijole V. Benokraitis, Ph.D. in sociology and conducted research with marriage and family and gender roles,[23] defines mothers as the expressive role players, who provide the emotional support and nurturing that sustain the family unit. Because of this, she argues, mothers outshine fathers who tend to be stricter and more distant. She goes on to express that one of a woman's expressive roles is that of kin-keeper, an important communication link among family members. Children tend to drift towards preference of parent depending on how involved a particular parent is, and a common problem in society today are absentee fathers; therefore, children are more likely to show preference for their mothers, as they are more involved with them than the fathers.[24]
Cultural definition of a mother's role also contribute to the preference of mother as primary caregiver. Children will lean more towards mothers because of their protective, nurturing characteristics, from a long established mother-child relationship from early on attachment beginning at birth and continuing as the child grows up.[25] In addition to their traditional protective and nurturing role, single mothers have to play the role of family provider as well; since men are the breadwinners of the traditional family, in the absence of the father the mother must fulfill this role whilst also providing adequate parentage. Because of this dual role, 80% of single mothers are employed of which 50% are full-time workers and 30% are part-time.[21] Many employed single mothers rely on childcare facilities to care for their children while they are away at work. Linked to the rising prevalence of single parenting is the increasing quality of healthcare, and there have been findings of positive developmental effects with modern childcare. It's not uncommon that the mother will become actively involved with the childcare program as to compensate for leaving her children under the care of others.[1][26] Working single mothers may also rely on the help from fictive kin, who provide for the children while the mother is at her job.[24]
27% of single mothers live below the poverty line,[21] as they lack the financial resources to support their children when the birth father is unresponsive. Although the public is sympathetic with low-wage single mothers, government benefits are fairly low. Many seek assistance through living with another adult, perhaps a relative, fictive kin, or significant other, and divorced mothers who re-marry have fewer financial struggles than unmarried single mothers, who cannot work for longer periods of time without shirking their child-caring responsibilities. Unmarried mothers are thus more likely to cohabit with another adult.[27]
In the United States today, there are nearly 13.6 million single parents raising over 21 million children.[28] Single fathers are far less common then single mothers, constituting 16% of single-parent families; nonetheless they are not unheard of.[29] According to Single Parent Magazine, the number of single fathers has increased by 60% in the last ten years, and is one of the fastest growing family situations in the United States.[28] 60% of single fathers are divorced, by far the most common cause of this family situation. While fathers are not normally seen as primary caregivers, statistics show that 90% of single-fathers are employed, and 72% have a full-time job.[21]
"Father" has been variously defined throughout history as provider, dad, and even sire,[30] carrying connotations of being demanding, disciplinary, and even cruel; yet, as the writer Armstrong Williams remarks in the article The Definition of Father, "...every father must take the time to be a dad as well as a friend, disciplinarian, shoulder to cry on, dance partner, coach, audience, adviser, listener, and so much more." Williams, the writer quoted above, goes on to say that he viewed his father as the driving force in his family and also someone who brought strength and compassion to his family.[31] In addition to these qualities, the single father must take on the role of the mother, are role that extends deep into morality, devotion, and the ability to set up an educational yet nurturing environment.[32] Thus it is the father's role to be a source of both resilience and strength, and love and compassion.[31]
Little research has been done to suggest the hardships of the "single father as a caretaker" relationship; however, a great deal has been done on the hardships of a single-parent household. Single-parent households tend to find difficulty with the lack of help they receive. More often than not a single parent finds it difficult to find help because there is a lack of support, whether it be a second parent or other family members. This tends to put a strain on not only the parent but also the relationship between the parent and their child. Furthermore, dependency is a hardship that many parents find difficult to overcome. As the single parent becomes closer to their child, the child grows more and more dependent upon that parent. This dependency, while common, may reach far past childhood, damaging the child due to their lack of independence from their parent. "Social isolation of single parents might be a stress factor that they transmit to children. Another explanation may be that the parents do not have the time needed to support and supervise their children. This can have a negative impact on the child."[33]
Just as above, it has been found that little 'specific' research to the positives of the father as a single parent has been done; however, there are various proven pros that accompany single parenting. One proven statistic about single fathers includes a that a single father tends to use more positive parenting techniques than a married father. As far as non-specific pros, a strong bond tends to be formed between parent and child in single-parenting situations, allowing for an increase in maturity and a closeness in the household. Gender roles are also less likely to be enforced in a single parent home because the work and chores are more likely to be shared among all individuals rather than specifically a male or female. Furthermore, the child will not suffer in any way as long as he or she is loved and cared for no differently than he or she would have been in a dual-parenting situation. In conjunction with this, a single parent usually uses more positive problem solving techniques rather than harsh discipline that may sometimes be found in dual-parenting households.[34]
Singe parent adoptions are controversial; most people believe children should only be adopted by a complete family, husband and wife. They are, however, still preferred over divorcees, as divorced parents are considered an unnecessary stress on the child.[35] In one study, the interviewers asked children questions about their new lifestyle in a single-parent home. The interviewer found that when asked about fears, a high proportion of children feared illness or injury to the parent. When asked about happiness, half of the children talked about outings with their single adoptive parent.[36] A single person wanting to adopt a child has to be mindful of the challenges they may face, and there are certain agencies that will not work with single adoptive parents at all. Single parents will typically only have their own income to live off of, and thus might not have a backup plan for potential children in case something happens to them.[37] Traveling is also made more complex, as the child must either be left in someone else's care, or taken along.[38]
Single parent adoption is legal in all 50 states, a relatively recent occurrence as California's State Department of Social Welfare was the first to permit it in the 1960s. Still, the process is arduous, and even next to impossible through some agencies.[35] Adoption agencies have strict rules about what kinds of people they allow, and most are thorough in checking the adopter's background.[39] An estimated 5-10% of all adoptions in the U.S. are by single persons.[37]
Single parent adoptions have existed since the mid 19th century. Men were rarely considered as adoptive parents, and were considered far less desired. Oftentimes, children adopted by a single person were raised in pairs rather than alone, and many adoptions by lesbians and gay men were arranged as single parent adoptions. During the mid 19th century many state welfare officials made it difficult if not impossible for single persons to adopt, as agencies searched for "normal" families with married men and women. In 1965 the Los Angeles Bureau of Adoptions sought single African-Americans for African-American orphans for whom married families couldn't be found. In 1968, the Child Welfare League of America stated that married couples were preferred, but there were "exceptional circumstances" where single parent adoptions were permissible.[40] Not much has changed with the adoption process since the 1960s however, today, many countries only allow women to adopt as a single parent, and many others only allow men to adopt boys.[41]
In 2009, the overall divorce rate was around 9/1000 in the United States. It was also found that more influence came from the south, with the rates there being about 10.5/1000, as opposed to the north where it was around 7/1000.[42] This resulted in about 1.5% (around 1 million) children living in the house of a recently divorced parent in the same year.[43] Along with this, it has been shown that for the past 10 years or so, first marriages have a 50% chance of ending in divorce. And, for other marriages after a first divorce, the chance of another divorce increases. In 2003, a study showed that about 69% of kids in American living in a household that was a different structure than the typical nuclear family. This was broken down into about 30 percent living with a stepparent, 23 percent living with a biological mother, 6 percent with grandparents as caregivers, 4 percent with a biological father, 4 percent with someone who was not a direct relative, and a small 1 percent living with a foster family.[44]
Around the mid 1990s, there was a significant amount of single parents raising children, with 1.3 million single fathers and 7.6 million single fathers in the United States alone. However, many parents desire, or attempt, to get sole custody, which would make them a single parent, but are unsuccessful in the court process. There are many parents who may single parent, but do so without official custody, further biasing statistics.
Child custody in reference to divorce refers to which parent is allowed to make important decisions about the children involved. Physical custody refers to which parent the child lives with. Among divorced parents, "parallel parenting" refers to parenting after divorce in which each parent does so independently; this is most common. In comparison, cooperative parenting occurs when the parents involved in the child’s life work together around all involved parties' schedules and activities, and this is far less common. After a certain "crisis period," most children resume normal development; however, their future relationships are often affected, as they lack a model upon which to base a healthy long term relationship. Nonetheless, as adults children of divorcees cope better with change.[45][46][47]
Children are affected by divorce in many different ways, varying by the circumstances and age of the child. Young children ages two to six are generally the most fearful of parental separation, and often feel abandoned or confused. Both boys and girls have the same amount of trouble coping, but often show this in different ways. Nonetheless this age group adapts best to their situations, as they are often too young to remember their non-custodial parent vividly. Children ages seven to twelve are much better at expressing emotions and accepting parentage breakage, but often distrust their parents, rely on outside help and support for encouragement, and may manifest social and academic problems. Adolescents cope the worst with divorce; they often struggle most with the change, and may even turn away from their family entirely, dealing with their situation on their own. They often have problems expressing feelings, similar to far younger children, and may have adjustment issues with long-term relationships due to these feelings.[48]
There are several things that experts recommend to reduce the impact of a divorce on children. Leaving discussion of conflict to the court only is recommended, and parents still need to work together, regarding decisions and discipline, to give their children the best developmental support. Grounding both parent's in the child's life is also important, It's important to involve both parents equally, even when the child may only be living with one. Communication is key; a parent should never ignore what their child is saying, because they might be saying something that is very important to them.[49] Parents need to make sure they communicate with both each other and their children, about the child's everyday life.[50]
Single parents have been depicted quite heavily in media, for instance:
Single mothers:[51]
Single fathers:[51]
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